Several different types of workers are responsible for measuring and
mapping the earth’s surface. Traditional land surveyors
establish official land, air space, and water boundaries. They write
descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents;
define airspace for airports; and measure construction and mineral
sites. Other surveyors provide data relevant to the shape, contour,
location, elevation, or dimension of land or land features. Cartographers
compile geographic, political, and cultural information and prepare maps
of large areas. Photogrammetrists measure and analyze aerial
photographs that are subsequently used to prepare detailed maps and
drawings. Surveying technicians assist land surveyors by
operating survey instruments and collecting information in the field and
by performing computations and computer-aided drafting in offices. Mapping
technicians calculate mapmaking information from field notes. They
also draw topographical maps and verify their accuracy.
Land surveyors manage survey parties who measure distances,
directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines,
and contours on, above, and below the earth’s surface. They plan the
fieldwork, select known survey reference points, and determine the
precise location of important features in the survey area. Surveyors
research legal records, look for evidence of previous boundaries, and
analyze the data to determine the location of boundary lines. They also
record the results of surveys, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare
plots, maps, and reports. Surveyors who establish boundaries must be
licensed by the State in which they work. Known as professional land
surveyors, they are sometimes called to provide expert testimony in
court cases concerning matters pertaining to surveying.
A survey party gathers the information needed by the land surveyor.
A typical survey party consists of a party chief and one or more
surveying technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a
land surveyor or a senior surveying technician, leads day-to-day work
activities. Surveying technicians assist the party chief by adjusting
and operating surveying instruments, such as the theodolite (used to
measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic
distance-measuring equipment. Surveying technicians or assistants
position and hold the vertical rods, or targets, that the theodolite
operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or elevations. In
addition, they may hold measuring tapes, if electronic
distance-measuring equipment is not used. Surveying technicians compile
notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from surveying
instruments into computers. Survey parties also may include laborers or
helpers who perform less skilled duties, such as clearing brush from
sight lines, driving stakes, or carrying equipment.
New technology is changing the nature of the work of surveyors and
surveying technicians. On larger projects, surveyors are increasingly
using the Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite system that
locates points on the earth to a high degree of precision by using radio
signals transmitted via satellites. To use this system, a surveyor
places a satellite signal receiver—a small instrument mounted on a
tripod—on a desired point. The receiver simultaneously collects
information from several satellites to establish a precise position. The
receiver also can be placed in a vehicle for tracing out road systems.
Because receivers now come in different sizes and shapes, and because
the cost of receivers has fallen, much more surveying work can be done
with GPS. Surveyors then must interpret and check the results produced
by the new technology.
Cartographers measure, map, and chart the earth’s surface.
Their work involves everything from performing geographical research and
compiling data to actually producing maps. Cartographers collect,
analyze, and interpret both spatial data—such as latitude, longitude,
elevation, and distance—and nonspatial data—for example, population
density, land-use patterns, annual precipitation levels, and demographic
characteristics. They prepare maps in either digital or graphic form,
using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and
satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare detailed maps and
drawings from aerial photographs, usually of areas that are
inaccessible, difficult, or less cost efficient to survey by other
methods. Map editors develop and verify the contents of maps,
using aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some States
require photogrammetrists to be licensed as professional land surveyors.
Some surveyors perform specialized functions closer to those of
cartographers than to those of traditional surveyors. For example, geodetic
surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, including satellite
observations (remote sensing), to measure large areas of the earth’s
surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for
subsurface exploration, usually in relation to petroleum. Marine or
hydrographic surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of
water to determine shorelines, the topography of the bottom, water
depth, and other features.
The work of surveyors and cartographers is changing because of
advancements in technology, including not only the GPS, but also new
earth resources data satellites, improved aerial photography, and
geographic information systems (GIS)—computerized data banks of
spatial data, along with the hardware, software, and staff needed to use
them. These systems are capable of assembling, integrating, analyzing,
and displaying data identified according to location. A GIS typically is
used to handle maps which combine information that is useful for
environmental studies, geology, engineering, planning, business
marketing, and other disciplines. As more of these systems are
developed, a new type of mapping scientist is emerging from the older
specialties of photogrammetrist and cartographer: the geographic
information specialist combines the functions of mapping science and
surveying into a broader field concerned with the collection and
analysis of geographic data.
Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and may spend a
lot of time outdoors. Sometimes they work longer hours during the
summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for
fieldwork. Seasonal demands for longer hours are related to demand for
specific surveying services. Home purchases traditionally are related to
the start and end of the school year; construction is related to the
materials to be used (unlike wood framing, concrete and asphalt are
restricted by outside temperatures); and aerial photography is most
effective when the leaves are off the trees.
Land surveyors and technicians engage in active, sometimes
strenuous, work. They often stand for long periods, walk considerable
distances, and climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and other
equipment. They also can be exposed to all types of weather. Traveling
often is part of the job, and land surveyors and technicians may commute
long distances, stay away from home overnight, or temporarily relocate
near a survey site.
Although surveyors can spend considerable time indoors, planning
surveys, analyzing data, and preparing reports and maps, cartographers
and photogrammetrists spend virtually all of their time in offices and
seldom visit the sites they are mapping.
Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying
technicians held about 124,000 jobs in 2002. Architectural, engineering,
and related services firms—including firms that provided surveying and
mapping services to other industries on a contract basis—provided
about two-thirds of jobs for these workers. Federal, State, and local
governmental agencies provided almost 1 in 6 jobs. Major Federal
Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Bureau
of Land Management (BLM), the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest
Service (USFS), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), and the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Most surveyors in State and local
government work for highway departments and urban planning and
redevelopment agencies. Construction firms, mining and oil and gas
extraction companies, and utilities also employ surveyors,
cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Only a
small number were self-employed in 2002.
Most people prepare for a career as a licensed surveyor by combining
postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-the-job
training. However, as technology advances, a 4-year college degree is
increasingly becoming a prerequisite. About 50 universities now offer
4-year programs leading to a B.S. degree in surveying. Junior and
community colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer
1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in both surveying and surveying technology.
All 50 States and all U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, the
Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands) license land surveyors. For
licensure, most State licensing boards require that individuals pass a
written examination given by the National Council of Examiners for
Engineering and Surveying. Most States also require surveyors to pass a
written examination prepared by the State licensing board. In addition,
candidates must meet varying standards of formal education and work
experience in the field.
In the past, many with little formal training in surveying started
as members of survey crews and worked their way up to become licensed
surveyors. However, because of advancing technology and rising licensing
standards, formal education requirements are increasing. Specific
requirements vary among States. Generally, the quickest route to
licensure is a combination of 4 years of college, up to 4 years of
experience under the supervision of an experienced surveyor (a few
States do not require any such experience), and passing the licensing
examinations. An increasing number of States require a bachelor’s
degree in surveying or in a closely related field, such as civil
engineering or forestry (with courses in surveying), regardless of the
number of years of experience. Many states also have a continuing
education requirement.
High school students interested in surveying should take courses in
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and
computer science. High school graduates with no formal training in
surveying usually start as apprentices. Beginners with postsecondary
school training in surveying usually can start as technicians or
assistants. With on-the-job experience and formal training in
surveying—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence
school—workers may advance to senior survey technician, then to party
chief, and, in some cases, to licensed surveyor (depending on State
licensing requirements).
The National Society of Professional Surveyors, a member
organization of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, has a
voluntary certification program for surveying technicians. Technicians
are certified at four levels requiring progressive amounts of
experience, in addition to the passing of written examinations. Although
not required for State licensure, many employers require certification
for promotion to positions with greater responsibilities.
Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances,
sizes, and abstract forms. They must work with precision and accuracy,
because mistakes can be costly. Members of a survey party must be in
good physical condition, because they work outdoors and often carry
equipment over difficult terrain. They need good eyesight, coordination,
and hearing to communicate verbally and manually (using hand signals).
Surveying is a cooperative operation, so good interpersonal skills and
the ability to work as part of a team are important. Good office skills
also are essential, because surveyors must be able to research old deeds
and other legal papers and prepare reports that document their work.
Cartographers and photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor’s
degree in a field such as engineering, forestry, geography, or a
physical science. Although it is possible to enter these positions
through previous experience as a photogrammetric or cartographic
technician, nowadays most cartographic and photogrammetric technicians
have had some specialized postsecondary school training. With the
development of GIS, cartographers and photogrammetrists need additional
education and stronger technical skills—including more experience with
computers—than in the past.
The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing has a
voluntary certification program for photogrammetrists. To qualify for
this professional distinction, individuals must meet work experience
standards and pass an oral or a written examination.
Overall employment of surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists,
and surveying technicians is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year
2012. The widespread availability and use of advanced technologies, such
as GPS, GIS, and remote sensing, will continue to increase both the
accuracy and productivity of these workers, resulting in modest overall
growth in employment. However, job openings will continue to result from
the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who
leave the labor force altogether.
Employment of surveying and mapping technicians is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. The short
training period needed to learn to operate the equipment, the current
lack of any formal testing or licensing, the growing demand for people
to do basic GIS-related data-entry work, and relatively lower wages all
encourage demand for these technicians. However, many persons possess
the basic skills needed to qualify for the jobs that are available, so
competition for job openings may result.
As technologies become more complex, opportunities will be best for
surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists who have at least a
bachelor’s degree and strong technical skills. Increasing demand for
geographic data, as opposed to traditional surveying services, will mean
better opportunities for cartographers and photogrammetrists who are
involved in the development and use of geographic and land information
systems. New technologies, such as GPS and GIS, also may enhance
employment opportunities for surveyors, as well as for those surveying
technicians who have the educational background and who have acquired
technical skills that enable them to work with the new systems. At the
same time, upgraded licensing requirements will continue to limit
opportunities for professional advancement for those without
bachelor’s degrees.
Opportunities for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists
should remain concentrated in architectural, engineering, and related
services firms. However, nontraditional areas, such as urban planning,
emergency preparedness, and natural resource exploration and mapping,
also should provide employment growth, particularly with regard to
producing maps for the management of emergencies and updating maps with
the newly available technology. Continued growth in construction through
2012 will require surveyors to lay out streets, shopping centers,
housing developments, factories, office buildings, and recreation areas,
while setting aside flood plains, wetlands, wildlife habitats, and
environmentally sensitive areas for protection. However, employment may
fluctuate from year to year along with construction activity or with
mapping needs for land and resource management.
Median annual earnings of cartographers and photogrammetrists were
$42,870 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,580 and
$55,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,810 and the highest
10 percent earned more than $69,320.
Median annual earnings of surveyors were $39,970 in 2002. The middle
50 percent earned between $29,320 and $53,440. The lowest 10 percent
earned less than $22,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than
$67,700. Median hourly earnings of surveyors employed in architectural,
engineering, and related services were $38,370 in 2002.
Median annual earnings of surveying and mapping technicians were
$29,230 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,640 and
$39,070 in 2002. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,490, and the
highest 10 percent earned more than $48,970. Median annual earnings of
surveying and mapping technicians employed in architectural,
engineering, and related services were $27,130 in 2002, while those
employed by local governments had median annual earnings of $33,680.
In 2003, land surveyors in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and
managerial positions in the Federal Government earned an average salary
of $62,980; cartographers, $67,989; geodetic technicians, $55,374;
surveying technicians, $33,316; and cartographic technicians, $43,517.
Surveying is related to the work of civil
engineers, architects,
and landscape architects
because an accurate survey is the first step in land development and
construction projects. Cartography and geodetic surveying are related to
the work of environmental
scientists and geoscientists, who study the earth’s internal
composition, surface, and atmosphere. Cartography also is related to the
work of geographers and urban
and regional planners, who study and decide how the earth’s
surface is to be used.
Suggested citation: Bureau of Labor Statistics,
U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook,
2004-05 Edition,
Surveyors, Cartographers,
, on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/oco/
ocos040.htm
(visited January 27, 2005).
